Course: Biology-III (6453)                                              Semester: Autumn, 2022

Level: B.Ed. (2.5/4-Year)                                                             Credit Hours: 03           

Assignment no2

Q.1 Fill in the Blanks with Suitable Words

A. i. Glucose could be formed from non-carbohydrate precursors, such as lactate and amino acids by a process called gluconeogenesis.

ii. Glycolysis takes place without the need for oxygen (anaerobic conditions).

iii. Catabolism is the initial step of catabolic chemical reactions.

iv. Plants capture CO2 from the atmosphere and in a process called the Calvin-Benson cycle.

v. Photosynthetic organisms are called autotrophs.

B. Evolutionary Perspective of Glycolysis

The glycolytic pathway, a pivotal metabolic process, has an intriguing evolutionary history. Originating billions of years ago, glycolysis provided a fundamental energy-generation mechanism for early organisms. This ancient pathway has conserved its core steps across various species, indicating its vital role in survival. Through evolution, glycolysis adapted to diverse environmental conditions, contributing to the energy needs of organisms and laying the foundation for more intricate metabolic pathways.

Q.2 Various Types of Fermentation and a Comparison of Fat and Protein Metabolism

A. Various Types of Fermentation

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation: Occurs in muscles during intense exercise and in some microorganisms, producing lactic acid as a byproduct.
2. Alcoholic Fermentation: Utilized by yeast and some bacteria to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide.
3. Butyric Acid Fermentation: Generates butyric acid and other products, contributing to the flavor of certain foods.
4. Acetic Acid Fermentation: Yields vinegar through the oxidation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria.

B. Comparison of Fat and Protein Metabolism

Metabolism of Fats (Lipids) and Proteins differ in several aspects:

1. Energy Storage: Fats are efficient energy storage molecules due to their high energy content, while proteins are primarily used for structural and functional purposes.
2. Metabolic Breakdown: Fats are broken down through lipolysis, releasing fatty acids and glycerol. Proteins undergo proteolysis to form amino acids.
3. Energy Yield: Fats yield more energy per gram compared to proteins during metabolism.
4. Conversion to Glucose: Proteins can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis, while fats cannot.
5. Role in Energy Production: Fats contribute to long-term energy supply, while proteins are more likely to be used for energy during periods of starvation or intense exercise.

Q.3 Different Lung Diseases Caused by Pollution

Pollution significantly impacts respiratory health, leading to various lung diseases:

1. Asthma: Airborne pollutants trigger inflammation and narrowing of airways, causing breathing difficulties.
2. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Prolonged exposure to pollutants damages lung tissues, resulting in chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
3. Lung Cancer: Carcinogenic substances in polluted air increase the risk of lung cancer development.
4. Pneumonia: Pollutants weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to respiratory infections like pneumonia.
5. Interstitial Lung Disease: Pollutants can lead to scarring of lung tissues and impaired oxygen exchange.

Q.4 Description of Inheritance Patterns

Inheritance patterns describe how traits are passed from one generation to the next. These patterns include:

1. Dominant-Recessive: Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles.
2. Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally in heterozygous individuals.
3. Incomplete Dominance: Heterozygous individuals show an intermediate phenotype.
4. Sex-Linked Inheritance: Genes located on the sex chromosomes (X or Y) exhibit unique inheritance patterns.
5. Polygenic Inheritance: Multiple genes contribute to a single trait’s expression.

Q.5 Exploring Behavioral Ecology in Depth

Behavioral ecology studies how animals’ behavior evolves in response to ecological pressures. It encompasses:

1. Foraging Strategies: Animals optimize energy acquisition while balancing risks and rewards.
2. Reproductive Behavior: Mating rituals, courtship, and parental care strategies.
3. Social Behavior: Formation of groups, hierarchies, and cooperative interactions.
4. Communication: Use of signals, vocalizations, and displays to convey information.
5. Territoriality: Defending and marking territories to secure resources.

Behavioral ecology sheds light on the intricate interplay between genetics, environment, and behavior, enhancing our understanding of how organisms adapt to their surroundings.